THE CELL-SIZE, STRUCTURE,AND TYPES

    CELL-A cell is a structural and functional unit of all organisms. The cell was discovered by Robert hooke in 1665. In actually Hooke discover a non living cell. first living cell is discovered by Antony von Leeuwenhoek who described the algae Spirogyra.  MJ Schieiden and T Schwann give the cell theory in 1839.
Cell theory-
1.All life forms are made from one to more cells.
2.New cell formed by pre existing cells.
3.A cell is a smallest form of life.

CELL SIZE- There is a wide variation in the size of cells. The smallest cells are those of mycoplama. They have a size of 0.1-1.05µm. Viruses are still smaiier. They do not have cellular structure The smallest virus has a volume of 7.0×10^-7µm³.Cells of multicellular eukaryotes have a size of 5-100µm. Erythrocytes are 7-8µm in diameter. ‘small lymphocytes’ are still smaller.muscle and nerve cells are comparatively very large. Longest cells of human body are the nerve cells which may reach a length of 90cm.

Amongst plants,large cells occur in many algae.Inter-nodal cells of CHARA are 1-10cm in length. Acetabularia, a unicellular alga,is upto 10cm in length.In general,eggs are large sized cells because they store food for partial or complete development of the embryo.Human egg is slightly over 0.1mm or 100µm in diameter. Avian eggs are largest. The egg of Ostrich is 170×150mm with a  volume of 1.1×10¹⁵µm³

LAST YEAR QUESTION PAPER WITH SOLUTION

<sup>CELL STRUCTURE AND CELL TYPES-
A plant cell consists of cell wall and protoplast,But i animal cell the cell wall is absent.In the cytoplasmic matrix are embedded a large number of cell organelles having specific functions. They are plastid,mitochondria,golgibodies,Ribosome,Centrioles,lysosomes,micofilaments,etc.
Ergastic substances are chemical substances appear in the plant bodyas products of metabolism.They may occur in the cytoplasm or in the cell wall.The various such substance are carbohydrate,proteins,fats and oils,Tannins,resins,gums,etc.

CELL TYPES-Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic</sup>
There is a two types of cells-
(a)Prokaryotic-founds in becteria,blue green algae and the PPLO(Pleuronemonia like organisms)
(b)Eukaryotic-present in animal and plant body.

                      PROKARYOTIC CELL
These are one enveloped structure which has a central nuclear material surrounded by cytoplasm. A bacterial cell is the best modal of an prokaryotic cell structure,Its enclosed by three layers,the outermost covering of slime,the middle cell wall and the innermost plasma membrane. parts of prokaryotic cell-
(1)Slime Layer-Capsule,Glycocalyx -This layer is present on the outer surface of the cell wall,made of polysaccharides and a polypeptide chain of amino acid,When the constituents of this layer are only polysaccharides which form a viscous layer,it is termed as slime layer.

Composition.structure and function of water soluble vitamin

                                WATER SOLUBLE VITAMIN
Water soluble vitamin's are second type of vitamin's to read about fat soluble vitamin click here-
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMIN
 Vitamin B complex and vitamin C are water soluble vitamin's.
                                                       
                                    Vitamin B complex

 Vitamin B complex is a group of many vitamin's
these are B1.B2,B3,B5,B6,B7,B9,B12 and enositol.

                       (a)Vitamin B1-
Biological name-thiamine
discovered by-Jansen AND Donath
synthesized by-williams

Vitamin B1 is necessary to regulate the metabolism.This vitamin alone can keep someone alive without other vitamins and minerals, also under faulty conditions.When vitamin B1 is lacking and an excess of carbohydrate is present BERI-BERI arise in the different forms.

PROPERTIES-
(a)Protects against some negative consequences of alcohol use.
(b)Can helpful in treatment of nerve disturbances.
(c)Helpful in anaemia's treatment.
(d)herpes infections treatment.
(e) In the muscles it transfer sugar into energy.
READ ABOUT CELL-
THE CELL

CSIR UGC NET SYLLABUS

CSIR-UGC National Eligibility Test (NET) for Junior Research Fellowship and Lecturer-ship

                                LIFE SCIENCES
1. Molecules and their Interaction Relevant to Biology
2. Cellular Organization
3. Fundamental Processes
4. Cell Communication and Cell Signaling
5. Developmental Biology
6. System Physiology – Plant
7. System Physiology – Animal
8. Inheritance Biology
9. Diversity of Life Forms
10. Ecological Principles
11. Evolution and Behavior
12. Applied Biology
13. Methods in Biology
LAST YEAR EXAM PAPER WITH SOLUTION
click here for know about how to pass NET exam without chocking
WHAT DO TO PASS NET EXAM

1. MOLECULES AND THEIR INTERACTION RELEVANT TO BIOLOGY
A. Structure of atoms, molecules and chemical bonds.
B Composition, structure and function of biomolecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids and vitamins).
C. Stabilizing interactions (Van der Waals, electrostatic, hydrogen bonding, hydrophobic interaction, etc.).
D Principles of biophysical chemistry (pH, buffer, reaction kinetics, thermodynamics, colligative properties).
E. Bioenergetics, glycolysis, oxidative phosphorylation, coupled reaction, group transfer, biological energy transducers.
F. Principles of catalysis, enzymes and enzyme kinetics, enzyme regulation, mechanism of enzyme catalysis, isozymes
G. Conformation of proteins (Ramachandran plot, secondary structure, domains, motif and folds).
H. Conformation of nucleic acids (helix (A, B, Z), t-RNA, micro-RNA).
I. Stability of proteins and nucleic acids.
J. Metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, amino acids nucleotides and vitamins.
2. CELLULAR ORGANIZATION
A) Membrane structure and function
(Structure of model membrane, lipid bilayer and membrane protein diffusion, osmosis, ion channels, active transport, membrane pumps, mechanism of sorting and regulation of intracellular transport,electrical properties of membranes).
B) Structural organization and function of intracellular organelles (Cell wall, nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi bodies, lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, peroxisomes, plastids, vacuoles, chloroplast, structure & function of cytoskeleton and its role in motility).
C) Organization of genes and chromosomes (Operon, unique and repetitive DNA, interrupted genes, gene families, structure of chromatin and chromosomes, heterochromatin, euchromatin, transposons).
D) Cell division and cell cycle (Mitosis and meiosis, their regulation, steps in cell cycle, regulation and control of cell cycle).
E) Microbial Physiology (Growth yield and characteristics, strategies of cell division, stress response)
3. FUNDAMENTAL PROCESSES
A) DNA replication, repair and recombination (Unit of replication, enzymes involved, replication origin and replication fork, fidelity of replication, extrachromosomal replicons, DNA damage and repair mechanisms, homologous and site-specific recombination).
B) RNA synthesis and processing (transcription factors and machinery, formation of initiation complex, transcription activator and repressor, RNA polymerases, capping,
elongation, and termination, RNA processing, RNA editing, splicing, and polyadenylation, structure and function of different types of RNA, RNA transport).+
C) Protein synthesis and processing (Ribosome, formation of initiation complex, initiation factors and their regulation, elongation and elongation factors, termination, genetic code, aminoacylation of tRNA, tRNA-identity, aminoacyl tRNA synthetase, and translational proof-reading, translational inhibitors, Post- translational modification of proteins).
D) Control of gene expression at transcription and translation level (regulating the expression of phages, viruses, prokaryotic and eukaryotic genes, role of chromatin in gene expression and gene silencing).
4. Cell communication and cell signaling
A) Host parasite interaction Recognition and entry processes of different pathogens like bacteria, viruses into animal and plant host cells, alteration of host cell behavior by pathogens, virus-induced cell transformation, pathogen-induced diseases in animals and plants, cell-cell fusion in both normal and abnormal cells.
B) Cell signaling Hormones and their receptors, cell surface receptor, signaling through G-protein coupled receptors, signal transduction pathways, second messengers, regulation of signaling pathways, bacterial and plant two-component systems, light signaling in plants, bacterial chemotaxis and quorum sensing.
C) Cellular communication Regulation of hematopoiesis, general principles of cell communication, cell adhesion and roles of different adhesion molecules, gap junctions, extracellular matrix, integrins, neurotransmission and its regulation.
D) Cancer
Genetic rearrangements in progenitor cells, oncogenes, tumor suppressor genes, cancer and the cell cycle, virus-induced cancer, metastasis, interaction of cancer cells with normal cells, apoptosis, therapeutic interventions of uncontrolled cell growth.
E) Innate and adaptive immune system Cells and molecules involved in innate and adaptive immunity, antigens, antigenicity and immunogenicity. B and T cell epitopes, structure and function of antibody molecules. generation of antibody diversity, monoclonal antibodies, antibody engineering, antigen-antibody interactions, MHC molecules, antigen processing and presentation, activation and differentiation of B and T cells, B and T cell receptors, humoral and cell-mediated immune responses, primary and secondary immune modulation, the complement system, Toll-like receptors, cell-mediated effector functions, inflammation, hypersensitivity and autoimmunity, immune response during bacterial (tuberculosis), parasitic (malaria) and viral (HIV) infections, congenital and acquired immunodeficiencies, vaccines.
5. DEVELOPMENTAL BIOLOGY
A) Basic concepts of development : Potency, commitment, specification, induction, competence, determination and differentiation; morphogenetic gradients; cell fate and cell lineages; stem cells; genomic equivalence and the cytoplasmic determinants; imprinting; mutants and transgenics in analysis of development
B) Gametogenesis, fertilization and early development: Production of gametes, cell surface molecules in sperm-egg recognition in animals; embryo sac development and double fertilization in plants; zygote formation, cleavage, blastula formation, embryonic fields, gastrulation and formation of germ layers in animals; embryogenesis, establishment of symmetry in plants; seed formation and germination.
C) Morphogenesis and organogenesis in animals : Cell aggregation and differentiation in Dictyostelium; axes and pattern formation in Drosophila, amphibia and chick; organogenesis – vulva formation in Caenorhabditis elegans, eye lens induction, limb development and regeneration in vertebrates; differentiation of neurons, post embryonic development- larval formation, metamorphosis; environmental regulation of normal development; sex determination.
D) Morphogenesis and organogenesis in plants: Organization of shoot and root apical meristem; shoot and root development; leaf development and phyllotaxy; transition to flowering, floral meristems and floral development in Arabidopsis and Antirrhinum
E) Programmed cell death, aging and senescence
6. SYSTEM PHYSIOLOGY - PLANT
A. Photosynthesis - Light harvesting complexes; mechanisms of electron transport; photoprotective mechanisms; CO2 fixation-C3, C4 and CAM pathways.
B. Respiration and photorespiration – Citric acid cycle; plant mitochondrial electron transport and ATP synthesis; alternate oxidase; photorespiratory pathway.
C. Nitrogen metabolism - Nitrate and ammonium assimilation; amino acid biosynthesis.
D. Plant hormones – Biosynthesis, storage, breakdown and transport; physiological effects and mechanisms of action.
E. Sensory photobiology - Structure, function and mechanisms of action of phytochromes, cryptochromes and phototropins; stomatal movement; photoperiodism and biological clocks.
F. Solute transport and photoassimilate translocation – uptake, transport and translocation of water, ions, solutes and macromolecules from soil, through cells, across membranes, through xylem and phloem; transpiration; mechanisms of loading and unloading of photoassimilates.
G. Secondary metabolites - Biosynthesis of terpenes, phenols and nitrogenous compounds and their roles.
H. Stress physiology – Responses of plants to biotic (pathogen and insects) and abiotic (water, temperature and salt) stresses.
7. SYSTEM PHYSIOLOGY - ANIMAL
A. Blood and circulation - Blood corpuscles, haemopoiesis and formed elements, plasma function, blood volume, blood volume regulation, blood groups, haemoglobin, immunity, haemostasis.
B. Cardiovascular System: Comparative anatomy of heart structure, myogenic heart, specialized tissue, ECG – its principle and significance, cardiac cycle, heart as a pump, blood pressure, neural and chemical regulation of all above.
C. Respiratory system - Comparison of respiration in different species, anatomical considerations, transport of gases, exchange of gases, waste elimination, neural and chemical regulation of respiration.
D. Nervous system - Neurons, action potential, gross neuroanatomy of the brain and spinal cord, central and peripheral nervous system, neural control of muscle tone and posture.
E. Sense organs - Vision, hearing and tactile response.
F. Excretory system - Comparative physiology of excretion, kidney, urine formation, urine concentration, waste elimination, micturition, regulation of water balance, blood volume, blood pressure, electrolyte balance, acid-base balance.
G. Thermoregulation - Comfort zone, body temperature – physical, chemical, neural regulation, acclimatization.
H. Stress and adaptation
I. Digestive system - Digestion, absorption, energy balance, BMR.
J. Endocrinology and reproduction - Endocrine glands, basic mechanism of hormone action, hormones and diseases; reproductive processes, gametogenesis, ovulation, neuroendocrine regulation
8. INHERITANCE BIOLOGY
A) Mendelian principles : Dominance, segregation, independent assortment.
B) Concept of gene : Allele, multiple alleles, pseudoallele, complementation tests
C) Extensions of Mendelian principles : Codominance, incomplete dominance, gene interactions, pleiotropy, genomic imprinting, penetrance and expressivity, phenocopy, linkage and crossing over, sex linkage, sex limited and sex influenced characters.
D) Gene mapping methods : Linkage maps, tetrad analysis, mapping with molecular markers, mapping by using somatic cell hybrids, development of mapping population in plants.
E) Extra chromosomal inheritance : Inheritance of Mitochondrial and chloroplast genes, maternal inheritance.
F) Microbial genetics : Methods of genetic transfers – transformation, conjugation, transduction and sex-duction, mapping genes by interrupted mating, fine structure analysis of genes.
G) Human genetics : Pedigree analysis, lod score for linkage testing, karyotypes, genetic disorders.
H) Quantitative genetics : Polygenic inheritance, heritability and its measurements, QTL mapping.
I) Mutation : Types, causes and detection, mutant types – lethal, conditional, biochemical, loss of function, gain of function, germinal verses somatic mutants, insertional mutagenesis.
J) Structural and numerical alterations of chromosomes : Deletion, duplication, inversion, translocation, ploidy and their genetic implications.
K) Recombination : Homologous and non-homologous recombination including transposition.
9. DIVERSITY OF LIFE FORMS:
A. Principles & methods of taxonomy:
Concepts of species and hierarchical taxa, biological nomenclature, classical & quantititative methods of taxonomy of plants, animals and microorganisms.
B. Levels of structural organization:
Unicellular, colonial and multicellular forms. Levels of organization of tissues, organs & systems. Comparative anatomy, adaptive radiation, adaptive modifications.
C. Outline classification of plants, animals & microorganisms:
Important criteria used for classification in each taxon. Classification of plants, animals and microorganisms. Evolutionary relationships among taxa.
D. Natural history of Indian subcontinent:
Major habitat types of the subcontinent, geographic origins and migrations of species. Comman Indian mammals, birds. Seasonality and phenology of the subcontinent.
E. Organisms of health & agricultural importance:
Common parasites and pathogens of humans, domestic animals and crops.
F. Organisms of conservation concern:
Rare, endangered species. Conservation strategies.
10. ECOLOGICAL PRINCIPLES
The Environment: Physical environment; biotic environment; biotic and abiotic interactions.
Habitat and Niche: Concept of habitat and niche; niche width and overlap; fundamental and realized niche; resource partitioning; character displacement.
Population Ecology: Characteristics of a population; population growth curves; population regulation; life history strategies (r and K selection); concept of metapopulation – demes and dispersal, interdemic extinctions, age structured populations.
Species Interactions: Types of interactions, interspecific competition, herbivory, carnivory, pollination, symbiosis.
Community Ecology: Nature of communities; community structure and attributes; levels of species diversity and its measurement; edges and ecotones.
Ecological Succession: Types; mechanisms; changes involved in succession; concept of climax.
Ecosystem Ecology: Ecosystem structure; ecosystem function; energy flow and mineral cycling (C,N,P); primary production and decomposition; structure and function of some Indian ecosystems: terrestrial (forest, grassland) and aquatic (fresh water, marine, eustarine).
Biogeography: Major terrestrial biomes; theory of island biogeography; biogeographical zones of India.
Applied Ecology: Environmental pollution; global environmental change; biodiversity: status, monitoring and documentation; major drivers of biodiversity change; biodiversity management approaches.
Conservation Biology: Principles of conservation, major approaches to management, Indian case studies on conservation/management strategy (Project Tiger, Biosphere reserves).
11. EVOLUTION AND BEHAVIOUR
A. Emergence of evolutionary thoughts
Lamarck; Darwin–concepts of variation, adaptation, struggle, fitness and natural selection; Mendelism; Spontaneity of mutations; The evolutionary synthesis.
B. Origin of cells and unicellular evolution:
Origin of basic biological molecules; Abiotic synthesis of organic monomers and polymers; Concept of Oparin and Haldane; Experiement of Miller (1953); The first cell; Evolution of prokaryotes; Origin of eukaryotic cells; Evolution of unicellular eukaryotes; Anaerobic metabolism, photosynthesis and aerobic metabolism.
C. Paleontology and Evolutionary History:
The evolutionary time scale; Eras, periods and epoch; Major events in the evolutionary time scale; Origins of unicellular and multi cellular organisms; Major groups of plants and animals; Stages in primate evolution including Homo.
D. Molecular Evolution:
Concepts of neutral evolution, molecular divergence and molecular clocks; Molecular tools in phylogeny, classification and identification; Protein and nucleotide sequence analysis; origin of new genes and proteins; Gene duplication and divergence.
E. The Mechanisms:
Population genetics – Populations, Gene pool, Gene frequency; Hardy-Weinberg Law; concepts and rate of change in gene frequency through natural selection, migration and random genetic drift; Adaptive radiation; Isolating mechanisms; Speciation; Allopatricity and Sympatricity; Convergent evolution; Sexual selection; Co-evolution.
F. Brain, Behavior and Evolution:
Approaches and methods in study of behavior; Proximate and ultimate causation; Altruism and evolution-Group selection, Kin selection, Reciprocal altruism; Neural basis
of learning, memory, cognition, sleep and arousal; Biological clocks; Development of behavior; Social communication; Social dominance; Use of space and territoriality; Mating systems, Parental investment and Reproductive success; Parental care; Aggressive behavior; Habitat selection and optimality in foraging; Migration, orientation and navigation; Domestication and behavioral changes.
12. APPLIED BIOLOGY:
A. Microbial fermentation and production of small and macro molecules.
B. Application of immunological principles, vaccines, diagnostics. Tissue and cell culture methods for plants and animals.
C. Transgenic animals and plants, molecular approaches to diagnosis and strain identification.
D. Genomics and its application to health and agriculture, including gene therapy.
E. Bioresource and uses of biodiversity.
F. Breeding in plants and animals, including marker – assisted selection
G. Bioremediation and phytoremediation
H. Biosensors
13. METHODS IN BIOLOGY
A. Molecular Biology and Recombinant DNA methods:
Isolation and purification of RNA , DNA (genomic and plasmid) and proteins, different separation methods.
Analysis of RNA, DNA and proteins by one and two dimensional gel electrophoresis, Isoelectric focusing gels.
Molecular cloning of DNA or RNA fragments in bacterial and eukaryotic systems.
Expression of recombinant proteins using bacterial, animal and plant vectors.
Isolation of specific nucleic acid sequences
Generation of genomic and cDNA libraries in plasmid, phage, cosmid, BAC and YAC vectors.
In vitro mutagenesis and deletion techniques, gene knock out in bacterial and eukaryotic organisms.
Protein sequencing methods, detection of post translation modification of proteins.
DNA sequencing methods, strategies for genome sequencing.
Methods for analysis of gene expression at RNA and protein level, large scale expression, such as micro array based techniques
Isolation, separation and analysis of carbohydrate and lipid molecules
RFLP, RAPD and AFLP techniques
B. Histochemical and Immunotechniques
Antibody generation, Detection of molecules using ELISA, RIA, western blot, immunoprecipitation, fluocytometry and immunofluorescence microscopy, detection of molecules in living cells, in situ localization by techniques such as FISH and GISH.
C Biophysical Method:
Molecular analysis using UV/visible, fluorescence, circular dichroism, NMR and ESR spectroscopy Molecular structure determination using X-ray diffraction and NMR, Molecular analysis using light scattering, different types of mass spectrometry and surface plasma resonance methods.
D Statistical Methods:
Measures of central tendency and dispersal; probability distributions (Binomial, Poisson and normal); Sampling distribution; Difference between parametric and non-parametric statistics; Confidence Interval; Errors; Levels of significance; Regression and Correlation; t-test; Analysis of variance; X2 test;; Basic introduction to Muetrovariate statistics, etc.
E. Radio-labelling techniques:
Detection and measurement of different types of radioisotopes normally used in biology, incorporation of radioisotopes in biological tissues and cells, molecular imaging of radioactive material, safety guidelines.
F. Microscopic techniques:
Visualization of cells and sub-cellular components by light microscopy, resolving powers of different microscopes, microscopy of living cells, scanning and transmission microscopes, different fixation and staining techniques for EM, freeze-etch and freeze- fracture methods for EM, image processing methods in microscopy.
G. Electro physiological methods:
Single neuron recording, patch-clamp recording, ECG, Brain activity recording, lesion and stimulation of brain, pharmacological testing, PET, MRI, fMRI, CAT .
H. Methods in field biology:
Methods of estimating population density of animals and plants, ranging patterns through direct, indirect and remote observations, sampling methods in the study of behaviour, habitat characterization: ground and remote sensing methods.

WHAT TO DO PASS UGC LIFE SCIENCE NET EXAM

Hay friends,
                       Every one thought that the net exam is very tough and without chocking we can't pass this but i say that this is wrong you can pass this exam without chocking in first chance if you really want.
 In our life we fight many exams, in real life is also an exam. sometimes we fail but it doesn't mean to stop because if we stop we fail in life.

WINNING IS IN ME-

                                *  Don't think you are looser always think that in whole world one who is winner  is only you. to pass every exam you should have confidence on yourself.
*Our future is always in our own hands. Does you know about your subconscious mind this is a mind which who can make your future bright or dark. now you are thinking that how will you control your mind and make your future according you. for this you should firstly think that what you really want to do. ask from yourself and you will get right answer.
*Now if you think that to pass net exam is your dream and you can do anything to pass it you should say it to your subconscious mind. positive thinking effect very much on our future. 
 LAST YEAR EXAM PAPER WITH SOLUTION LEARN EVERYDAY-
Only thinking is not enough. To be a winner if you start learning right now and continue. mostly we start preparation at last moment so how can we get successes. time pass very faster. start preparation at list one year ago. I don't say you to take gape. if you read one topic with consecration you can cover all course easily. learn little but perfect. same like A,B,C.... which you learn once but never forget in whole life.

QUESTIONS OF LIFE SCIENCE

STUDY MATERIAL-Students think that how can they pass exam without any study material the books are very costly for this you should to don't worry because this is commuter time. you can got best material on-line easily only you have to learn it. 

SKILL TO ATTEMPT RIGHT QUESTIONS-
In NET exam the parer is divided in three parts A,B,C which contains 20,50 and 75 questions and student have to attempt at list 15,35 and 25 questions. there is negative marking so its very important to attempt right questions.
*Only attempt 15,35 and 25 questions don't solve extra questions
*First solve the logical questions 
*Choose the questions of the topic which you learn perfectly
*If you don't sure about any answer don't  try to guess.

Which topic is important for NET exam-
The most important topic for NET exam is genetics and cell biology. molecular biology and fundamental biology. these topics are mostly asked in exam because in C part questions are based on research and mind quiz. genetic material is best for brain quiz. so I will advise to prepare these topic firstly because if you attempt the questions from this topic you got easily high marks. And also other topics are also important. so learn equally.

click here for NET syllabus
SYLLABUS FOR NET EXAMINATION

composition structure and function of fat soluble vitamins

                                                          VITAMIN

Funk introduced vitamin as vitamin's are can be defined as natural organic substance which are required in very low amount to be healthy and they are to be supplied by food if they not synthesized by organs.
except- vitamin D
*Vitamins are complex organic compounds.
*In plants many protein synthesized comparing to animals.
*Human body need 15 vitamin compulsorily. 
*Vitamin works like hormones.
*Vitamin doesn't gives energy but it control all metabolic activities.
*On high temperature Vitamins are destroyed.
It is also called as accessory food substances. Vitamin's are divided in two groups-
                1.FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS-

        Vitamin A,D,E and K are fat soluble vitamins.

                                    (a)VITAMIN A
                            It is first fat soluble vitamin discovered by Mc. collum and Davis. the other name of this vitamin is "Anti infection vitamin". Its a complex primary alcohol.

Vitamin A is found in two form's. which are-Renitol 1 and Renitol 2.
Beta carotene is the precursor of vitamin A because its formed by oxidative splitting of beta carotene.

Read about nucleic acid here-
structure and function of nucleic acid

SOURCES- sources of vitamin A are egg yolk, fish oil, milk, cheese, tomato, papaya and yellow vegetable. It also formed on our body from certain carotenes. Vitamin A synthesized in liver.

FUNCTIONS-

1. Vitamin A is very important for rhodopsin of rod cells and idopsin of cone cells of the retina of eye.

2. Required for normal growth of tear gland.

3. Vitamin A makes the skin healthy and soft.

4. It is antioxidant.

DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS-

1. Nyctalopia( Night blindness)

2. Xerophthalmia (Drying of eyeball because tears are not produced.

3. Dermatosis (dry and scaly skin)

4. Retarded growth of body.
                                         (b)Vitamin D

Chemical name- Cholecalciferol/ Ergocalciferol
mc collum discover this vitamin in 1922. its nature is like steroid.
It present in nature in 5 forms-D1,D2,D3,D4 and D5. vitamin D2 find commonly. Vitamin D is synthesized by Ergosterol in presence of sun light. In human body cholesterol present in skin which converts in vitamin D in sun light. it is called as Antirachitic vitamin or Sunshine vitamin also.
SOURCE- fish oil, butter, milk , egg.

Functions-
1.It regulates calcium and phosphorus metabolism.
2. Important for normal growth of teeth and bones.

DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS-
Rickets in children( softness of bone like bow-legs and pigeon chests)
Osteomalacia in adults(weak bone liable to easy fracture)


                                     VITAMIN E

Chemical name-Tocopherol
other name- Anti-sterility vitamin 
Vitamin E is a mixture of several related compounds. Several different tochopherols having vitamin E activity have been found in plants the most active is alpha tochopherol. It has a chromone ring system  which caontain four metyl groups,one phenolic group and a phytyl side chain.

Source-Egg yolk,wheat,milk, butter,leafy vegetables,vegetable oil.

Daily requirement-20 mg

Functions- this vitamin play primary role to serve as an antioxidant of certain materials. Vitamin E maintain erythrocytes and keep the skins wellness.To curing cancer tumour its useful.vitamin E is important for reproduction and muscles.

Deficiency symptoms-
*Reproductive failure
*Degeneration of muscles
*Haemolysis of erythrocytes which calls anaemia

                                  Vitamin K

this vitamin is discovered by Dam in 1935.

Biological target-Gamma qlutamyl carboxylase

 Vitamin K is group of two compounds- vitamin K1 and vitamin K2
Function-Is is helpful in prothombin's synthesis. So it also calls antihimoregic vitamin.
Source-this vitamin is synthesized by green plants and micro-bacteria. mostly it taken from tomato,soya-bin,milk,fat and egg.
Vitamin K take part in phosphorylation of oxidative elements.

Deficiency- If a human has deficiency of this vitamin and injured then blood doesn't clots. 
click here for  read other vitamins-

WATER SOLUBLE VITAMIN

Blood and circulation

                              Blood
the only fluid tissue in our body is blood in human 1 kg weight of body contains 90 ml blood. and the P<sub>H of blood is 7.4. the composition of blood is that this is made of two impotent things-
1.Plasma(54%)
2. formed element(45%)
the plasma is composed by many inorganic and organic substance and formed element is made of different types of cells like RBC, WBC, leukocytes and platelets. 
here a link to read specialization of plasma membrane
PLASMA MEMBRANE

PLASMA- This  part of blood is fluid obtained when all formed elements are removed from the blood.</sub>
A. _{Organic constituents of plasma- 
                                                   this contains are found in plasma as plasma protein. the protein make plasma's viscosity. 4 types of protein are found's in plasma-
(a)Serum Albumin-it is 4.2% part of plasma protein M.W-68000. make in liver.
(b)Serum Globulin- 2.6% part M.W-90000 makes in liver this transfer hormone and chemical compounds. there is three types of this protein-alpha, beta and gamma 
(c)Prothrombin and fibrinogen- These are 0.2% part of protein the M.W is 72000 and it useful in blood clotting.
 B. Inorganic constituents of plasma-}
                                                         Na⁺,K⁺, Ca⁺⁺ , Mg⁺⁺,Cl^-­, So₄^2-, Po₄^2-,HCo₃^-,Co₃^{- are  presents in plasma .those are 1% of whole plasma. Fe, Cu, and I are also founds in low quantity. NaCl quantity is highest in plasma so the taste of blood is salty.}
other constituents of plasma- glucose, antigen antibody, pigments, hormone,enzyme,vitamin and gases are also important part of plasma.

BLOOD CORPUSCLES-
                                         Blood corpuscles made 45% part of plasma.

Specialization of plasma membrane

this article is on specialization of plasma membrane to read about membrane structure click on this link
CELL MEMBRANE STRUCTURE
Pores in plasma membrane-
In Plasma membrane's structure pores of 0.35 manometer are found. In size that pores are same as Na positive ion's size. only 0.1% surface has pores. there is many models for pore structure on membrane-
1.Structural pores
2.Dynamic pores
3.paving block pores
4.Protein channel pores
5. Ionophore

THE CELL COAT-
Every cell has cell coat which is made of polysaccharides this coat calls glycocalyx.The cell coat is outer layer which present on whole membrane but only absent on tight junctions.  
Structure- this is very mine layer which founds on cell membrane. this is made of mucous- polysaccharides.A fibre protein  FIBRONECTIN also take part in composition of this.
Function-
1.This gives stability to plasma membrane.
2.this works of selective barrier .
3.This controls cells outer micro environment.
4.In intestine it works like a protective layer.
5.Around kidney glomerulai it work life filter and control transfer of molecules.
6. in connective tissue cell coat has HYALURONATE.
7.plasma membrane of erythrocytes has special antigens of different blood groups.
8.A single cell has many types of glaycoprotiens in its cell membrane.

Modifications of cell membrane-

1.Microvilli-the small finger like structure which founds on uutside the plasma membrane call microvilli .microvilli mostly founds in ALIMENTARY CANAL's absorption cells.for example- intestinal cells,hepatic cells,uriniferous tubules. the surface where microvillis are present call Brush border. some cells has very high number of microvilli like intestine's epithelium cells  has 3000 microvillis.When we cut the section of micrlvilli we see a central core in its structure.this canter core is completely covers by cell membrane.cores of microvillis are connected by on the base by many micro filaments web.
function-microvillis are increase the absorption power of cell by grow the surface.
2. Empty areas between microvillis works like sieve.
read about animal physiology on this link-
ANIMAL PHYSIOLOGY
                                           Cell junctions-
these are many types-
1.Tight junctions-oh this outer layer of plasma membrane of two cells connects and block the empty area very tightly so no empty area has left.it stop particles transfer to one to other cell completely.from cell.this stop  pancreas's digestive juice to dissolve in blood.this controls communication of protein and other elements to one to other cell.

2.Gap Junctions-Gap junctions are a means of communication. channel protein of two opposite cells joint together providing channels for sugar,ions,amino acids and other small molecules to pass .every gap junction is made up of specialized protein channels called connexins.

3.PLasmodesmata- They are protoplasmic bridges amongst plant cells which occur in the areas of cell wall pits or pores.

4. Desmosomes-Adjacent membranes possess disc shaped ticking of about 0.5 µm diameter, a number of tonofibrils and trans-membrane linkers embedded in dense intercelluler material. Desmosomes function as spot welds and are hence called spot desmosomes. They occur in epithelia subjected to disruption.

5.Terminal bars- Terminal bars are desmosomes without tonofibrils. Bands of thickening occur on the inner surface of membrane. The bands contain micro filaments and intermediate filaments.

Questions about biomolecules

      QUESTION ANSWER ON                                       BIOMOLECULES
WHAT WILL DO TO PASS NET EXAM

 LAST YEAR EXAM PARE WITH SOLUTION
1.who discovered electron microscope?
ans-Noll and Rusk
2.Where the RNA is absent?
ans-Cytoplasmic membrane
3.  How many H-Bonds between cytosine and Guanine
ans-three
4.IN a cell which biomolecule highly founds?
Ans-Protein
5. the most sweet sugar is-
Ans-Fructose
6.Chromosomes are stained by-
Ans-Aycitocarmine
7.which type of RNA active for short time?
Ans-m-RNA
8. Gliadin protein founds in-
Ans-Wheat
9.Which DNA is given by Watson and Crick?
Ans-B-DNA
10.Which element make 96% Wight of Protoplasm?
Ans-HONC
11.Which is Maine source for bio energy?
Ans- Carbohydrate
12.IN polymerization monosaccharides co
nnects from the bond-
Ans-Glaycosidic bond
13.What is Glaycons?
Ans-Polysaccharides
14.In our body where glycogen stores?
Ans-Liver 
 15.Important Fatty acid for mammalians is-
Ans-Linonic and Glutamic acid      
 16.which is present in nucleic acid but absent in protein?

Ans-Phosphorus

17.Two Layered ring Structure is found in?

Ans-Purine

18.Composition of Nucleotide is-  

Ans-Nitrogen base+Pentose sugar+Phosphate

19.Enzyme complex calls-

Ans-HeloEnzyme

20. Part of enzyme which is made by protein calls-

Ans-Apoenzyme

21.All enzymes are?

Ans-Protein

22.A enzyme who converts starch in maltose by water snap is-

Ans-Amylase

23.Who gives LOCK KEY THEORY for enzyme?

Ans-Fisher

24.A pentose sugar which founds in nucleic acid is-

Ans-Ribose
STRUCTURE OF LIPID
 thank you to learn this now if you want to read question answer about molecules and there bonding click here and give your reviews.
QUESTION ANSWER ON MOLECULE AND BONDING

composition structure and function of lipid

                                                         LIPID
lipids are fatty acid ester of alcohol. it is an non polar molecule and insoluble in water but soluble in non poler organic solvents like chloroform aether benzene and carbon disulphide. wax, oil, natural rubber and cholesterol are one kind of lipids. cell membrane, vitamin A and E are made of lipids..
QUESTION ANSWER FOR MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
 chemically lipids are made of C,H and O but number of oxygen molecules is less then carbohydrate.
1.Fatty acid- fatty acid is a unit of lipid. fatty acid are carbonic acid which have chain that end in carboxylic group(-COOH). plants have bio-synthetic machinery to manufacture all types of fatty acids. fatty acids are divided in two types-
(a) Saturated fatty acid- this type fatty acid has no double bond between two carbon's of hydrocarbon chain. example- pamitic acid and steric acid.

(b)Non saturated fatty acid- In this carbon chain is unsaturated and double bonds are founds. the melting point of these fatty acids are low then saturated acid.
-Olcic acid- one double bond CH₃(CH₂)_7­CH-CH(CH₂)₇COOH
-Linoleic acid- two double bond CH₃(CH₂)₇CH-CH(CH₂)₇COOH
-Linolenic acid-three double bond
2.Fats-ester of fatty acid and glycerol is fat. every glycerol molecule connects with three molecules of fatty acid.
3.Oils- the fat which is liquid on normal temperature call oil. oil is unsaturated fatty acid which melting point is very low.
4.Derived lipids-
(a)Waxes- wax is a simple lipid which made of fatty acid and alcohol chain. chemically these are  inactive. this made protective layer on skin,hair, leaf and stems.
(b)Phospho-lipid-In this phosphate is also present with alcohol and fatty acid.so it call phospholipid. the molecule of phospholipid is bipolar. Its poler side is hydrophilic and non polar side is hydrophobic. IN liquid medium phospholipids make double layered membrane. this type of membrane is structural unit of cell membrane. phospholipids are helpful in blood clotting.
to read about protein click on this link-
structure of protein