AEROBIC RESPIRATION-KREBS CYCLE

The molecule of pyruvic acid which is made in glycolysis enters in kerbs cycle(if oxygen is present)
Krebs cycle start with aetyl coA so firstly pyruvic acid changed in acetyl coA. For this TPP co-enzyme and Mg++ are important. In this process oxidation and decarboxilation held together so this process called oxidation decarboxilation. For this process pyruvic dehydrogenase complex is important. This complex is group of three enzymes.These enzymes are-
1.Pyruvate decarboxynilase
2Lipoate reductase trans acetylase
3.De hydrolipoate dehydrogenase

Energy yieldduring oxidative decarboxilation-
2 pyruvic acid+2NAD-2 acetyl coA+ 2NADH2
2NADH2- 6ATP

For first step of aerobic respiration click here-GLYCOLYSIS

KREBS CYCLE/TCA  CYCLE/CITRIC ACID CYCLE
Krebs cycle was discovered by Hans Krebs.It occur inside mitochondria.It is a amphibolic path way because it is a comon path wat for protien,lipids catabolism. Acetyl coA functions as sbstrate entrant for Kreb cycle.This cycle complates in 10 steps.These are-


1.Condensation-Acetyl coA combines with oxalo acetate in the presence of citrate synthetase to form citric acid.
Acetyl coA+OAA→citric acid+CoA-Sh

2.Dehydration-Citrate forming Aconitic acid with releasing of water molecule in the presence of aconitase.
Citrate→cis aconitic acid

3.Hydration-cis aconitate is converted into isocitrate with the addition of water in the presence of aconitase.
Cis aconitate+water molecule→Isocitrate

4.Dehydrogenation-Isocitrate is dehydrogenated to oxalosuccinate in the presence of enzyme isocitrate dehydrogenase and Mn++.NADH2 is produced.
isocitrate+NAD+→oxalosuccinate+NADH2

5.Decarboxilation-Oxalosuccinate is decarboxylated to from α-ketoglutarate through enzyme decarboxylase.
Oxalosuccinate→ α-ketoglutarate

6.Dehydrogenation and Decarboxylation- α-ketoglutarate is both dehydrogenated and decarboxylated by an enzyme complex  α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase.the enzyme complex contains TPP and lipoic acid.The product combines with coA to from succinyl CoA.
 α-ketoglutarate+CoA+NAD→SuccinylCoA+NADH+H<sup>+

7.Formation of ATP/GTP-Succinyl CoA is acted upon by enzyme succinyl thiokinase to form succinate.The reaction release sufficient energy to form ATP or GTP.</sup>

Succinyl CoA+GDP/ATP→ Succinate+CoA+GTP/ATP

^{8.Dehydrogenation-Succinate undergoes dehydrogenation to form fumarate with the help of a dehydrogenase.FADH2 is produced.}

^{Succinate+FAD→Fumarate+FADH2}

^{9.Hydration-A molecule of water gets added to fumerate to form malate. The enzyme is called fumarase.}

Fumarate+H₂O→Malate

^{10.Dehydrogenation-Malate is Dehydrogenated or oxidised through the energy of malate dehydrogenase to produce oxaloacetate. Hydrogen is accepted by} NADP⁺NAD⁺

Malate=NAD(P)⁺→Oxaloacetate+NAD(P)H⁺

^{Oxaloacetate picks up another molecule of activated acetate to repeat the cycle.}

^{A molecule of glucose yields two molecules of NADH2,2ATP and two pyruvate while undergoing glycolysis. The two molecules of pyruvate are completely degraded in Krebs cycle to form 2 molecules of ATP,8NADH2 and 2FADH2.}

^{Energetics of Krebs cycle reaction                                  No. of ATP}

1.Pyruvic acid to actyle cova(NAD)                                   3ATP
2.Isocitric aid to oxallosuccinic acid(NAD)                        3ATP
3. α-Ketogutric acid to succinyl cova(NAD)                       3ATP
4.Succinic acid to fumaric acid(FAD)                                2ATP
5.Malic acid to OAA(NAD)                                                3ATP
6.Succinyl coA to succinic acid                                         1ATP
                                                                                           =15ATP
Total ATP produced during
 complate oxidation of Pyruvic acid =2x15=30ATP
                       And during glycolysis=8ATP
                                     TOTAL ATP=38ATP
                                   

AEROBIC RESPIRATION-GLYCOLYSIS

                                             MECHANISM OF RESPIRATION

Glycolysis or EMP pathway- The process  starts with glucose.In anaerobic respiration initial reactions are common as a result of which pyruvic acid is formed by breakdown of glucose. This process does not require oxygen. 

TCA cycle or Krebs cycle- After glycolysis if oxygen is present there is a complete oxidation of pyruvic acid into water and carbon dye oxide. This process called Krebs cycle.

Anaerobic respiration- If oxygen is absent, pyruvic acid form ethyl alcohol and carbon dye oxide.

Aerobic respiration consists of three steps- Glycolysis
                                                                     Krebs cycle
                                                                     Terminal oxidation
 In this article I am describing the first step- 
                                   Glycolysis.

Glycolysis is given by Embden, Meyerhof and Parnas so it also called EMP Pathway. Glycolysis is a process of breakdown of glucose or similar hexose sugar to molecules of pyruvic acid through a series of enzyme mediated releasing some energy and reducing power.It take place in cytoplasm.


                   

                                               
 Glycolysis held in 10 steps. 
Important points of this pathway is-
1.Function of kinase enzyme is add phosphate molecule.

2.In glycolysis ATP release at 2 places. 
These are-
(a)1,3 Biphosphpglycerte to 3 phosphoglycerate

 (b) phosphoenolpyruvate to pyruvate

3.One NADH release in this step-glycerleldehyde 3 phosphate to    3 phosphoglycerate.

4. Di hydroxy acetone phosphate also changed in glycereldehyde 3 phosphate so 2 molecules of glycereldehyde take part in one glycolysis cycle.
5.Total 4 ATP molecules release in one cycle and 2 molecule of  NADH.

TOTAL ENERGY PRODUCTION IN GLYCOLYSIS-

Direct ATP molecules-2x2= 4 ATP
By NADH molecules- 2x3= 6 ATP 
Total ATP molecules-4+6= 10 ATP
Used ATP in one cycle-  2 ATP
FINALLY GOT ATP MOLECULES- 10 ATP-2 ATP
                                                              = 8 ATP

NOTE-one NADH = 3 ATP.
           According to new rules 1 NADH= 2.5 ATP
           So if you do calculation according to new rules it is also correct.
CLICK HERE FOR-KREBS CYCLE Buy best book for net/jrf examination now. click here to-
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 questions about this topic-

1.What is the full form of ATP
Answer- Adinocin tri phosphate

2.What is the structure of pyruvate?
Answer-

3.How many pyruvic acid got in glycolysis?
Answer-2

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Composition.structure and function of water soluble vitamin

                                WATER SOLUBLE VITAMIN
Water soluble vitamin's are second type of vitamin's to read about fat soluble vitamin click here-
FAT SOLUBLE VITAMIN
 Vitamin B complex and vitamin C are water soluble vitamin's.
                                                       
                                    Vitamin B complex

 Vitamin B complex is a group of many vitamin's
these are B1.B2,B3,B5,B6,B7,B9,B12 and enositol.

                       (a)Vitamin B1-
Biological name-thiamine
discovered by-Jansen AND Donath
synthesized by-williams

Vitamin B1 is necessary to regulate the metabolism.This vitamin alone can keep someone alive without other vitamins and minerals, also under faulty conditions.When vitamin B1 is lacking and an excess of carbohydrate is present BERI-BERI arise in the different forms.

PROPERTIES-
(a)Protects against some negative consequences of alcohol use.
(b)Can helpful in treatment of nerve disturbances.
(c)Helpful in anaemia's treatment.
(d)herpes infections treatment.
(e) In the muscles it transfer sugar into energy.
READ ABOUT CELL-
THE CELL

composition structure and function of fat soluble vitamins

                                                          VITAMIN

Funk introduced vitamin as vitamin's are can be defined as natural organic substance which are required in very low amount to be healthy and they are to be supplied by food if they not synthesized by organs.
except- vitamin D
*Vitamins are complex organic compounds.
*In plants many protein synthesized comparing to animals.
*Human body need 15 vitamin compulsorily. 
*Vitamin works like hormones.
*Vitamin doesn't gives energy but it control all metabolic activities.
*On high temperature Vitamins are destroyed.
It is also called as accessory food substances. Vitamin's are divided in two groups-
                1.FAT SOLUBLE VITAMINS-

        Vitamin A,D,E and K are fat soluble vitamins.

                                    (a)VITAMIN A
                            It is first fat soluble vitamin discovered by Mc. collum and Davis. the other name of this vitamin is "Anti infection vitamin". Its a complex primary alcohol.

Vitamin A is found in two form's. which are-Renitol 1 and Renitol 2.
Beta carotene is the precursor of vitamin A because its formed by oxidative splitting of beta carotene.

Read about nucleic acid here-
structure and function of nucleic acid

SOURCES- sources of vitamin A are egg yolk, fish oil, milk, cheese, tomato, papaya and yellow vegetable. It also formed on our body from certain carotenes. Vitamin A synthesized in liver.

FUNCTIONS-

1. Vitamin A is very important for rhodopsin of rod cells and idopsin of cone cells of the retina of eye.

2. Required for normal growth of tear gland.

3. Vitamin A makes the skin healthy and soft.

4. It is antioxidant.

DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS-

1. Nyctalopia( Night blindness)

2. Xerophthalmia (Drying of eyeball because tears are not produced.

3. Dermatosis (dry and scaly skin)

4. Retarded growth of body.
                                         (b)Vitamin D

Chemical name- Cholecalciferol/ Ergocalciferol
mc collum discover this vitamin in 1922. its nature is like steroid.
It present in nature in 5 forms-D1,D2,D3,D4 and D5. vitamin D2 find commonly. Vitamin D is synthesized by Ergosterol in presence of sun light. In human body cholesterol present in skin which converts in vitamin D in sun light. it is called as Antirachitic vitamin or Sunshine vitamin also.
SOURCE- fish oil, butter, milk , egg.

Functions-
1.It regulates calcium and phosphorus metabolism.
2. Important for normal growth of teeth and bones.

DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS-
Rickets in children( softness of bone like bow-legs and pigeon chests)
Osteomalacia in adults(weak bone liable to easy fracture)


                                     VITAMIN E

Chemical name-Tocopherol
other name- Anti-sterility vitamin 
Vitamin E is a mixture of several related compounds. Several different tochopherols having vitamin E activity have been found in plants the most active is alpha tochopherol. It has a chromone ring system  which caontain four metyl groups,one phenolic group and a phytyl side chain.

Source-Egg yolk,wheat,milk, butter,leafy vegetables,vegetable oil.

Daily requirement-20 mg

Functions- this vitamin play primary role to serve as an antioxidant of certain materials. Vitamin E maintain erythrocytes and keep the skins wellness.To curing cancer tumour its useful.vitamin E is important for reproduction and muscles.

Deficiency symptoms-
*Reproductive failure
*Degeneration of muscles
*Haemolysis of erythrocytes which calls anaemia

                                  Vitamin K

this vitamin is discovered by Dam in 1935.

Biological target-Gamma qlutamyl carboxylase

 Vitamin K is group of two compounds- vitamin K1 and vitamin K2
Function-Is is helpful in prothombin's synthesis. So it also calls antihimoregic vitamin.
Source-this vitamin is synthesized by green plants and micro-bacteria. mostly it taken from tomato,soya-bin,milk,fat and egg.
Vitamin K take part in phosphorylation of oxidative elements.

Deficiency- If a human has deficiency of this vitamin and injured then blood doesn't clots. 
click here for  read other vitamins-

WATER SOLUBLE VITAMIN

composition structure and function of lipid

                                                         LIPID
lipids are fatty acid ester of alcohol. it is an non polar molecule and insoluble in water but soluble in non poler organic solvents like chloroform aether benzene and carbon disulphide. wax, oil, natural rubber and cholesterol are one kind of lipids. cell membrane, vitamin A and E are made of lipids..
QUESTION ANSWER FOR MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
 chemically lipids are made of C,H and O but number of oxygen molecules is less then carbohydrate.
1.Fatty acid- fatty acid is a unit of lipid. fatty acid are carbonic acid which have chain that end in carboxylic group(-COOH). plants have bio-synthetic machinery to manufacture all types of fatty acids. fatty acids are divided in two types-
(a) Saturated fatty acid- this type fatty acid has no double bond between two carbon's of hydrocarbon chain. example- pamitic acid and steric acid.

(b)Non saturated fatty acid- In this carbon chain is unsaturated and double bonds are founds. the melting point of these fatty acids are low then saturated acid.
-Olcic acid- one double bond CH₃(CH₂)_7­CH-CH(CH₂)₇COOH
-Linoleic acid- two double bond CH₃(CH₂)₇CH-CH(CH₂)₇COOH
-Linolenic acid-three double bond
2.Fats-ester of fatty acid and glycerol is fat. every glycerol molecule connects with three molecules of fatty acid.
3.Oils- the fat which is liquid on normal temperature call oil. oil is unsaturated fatty acid which melting point is very low.
4.Derived lipids-
(a)Waxes- wax is a simple lipid which made of fatty acid and alcohol chain. chemically these are  inactive. this made protective layer on skin,hair, leaf and stems.
(b)Phospho-lipid-In this phosphate is also present with alcohol and fatty acid.so it call phospholipid. the molecule of phospholipid is bipolar. Its poler side is hydrophilic and non polar side is hydrophobic. IN liquid medium phospholipids make double layered membrane. this type of membrane is structural unit of cell membrane. phospholipids are helpful in blood clotting.
to read about protein click on this link-
structure of protein

Composition, structure and function of nucleic acid

                                                           Nucleic acid
 Swindon's Fricdrich micscher has the oner to discover nucleic acid. nucleic acid are polymers of nucleotides and every nucleotides are made by combining nitrogenous heterocyclic rings,sugar and phosphate group. the molecular weight of nucleic acid is high and structure is complex. nucleic acid are isolated from nucleus so it  call nucleic acid. There is two structure classes of nucleic acids are occur in cell -deoxyribonucleic acid and ribonucleic acid. 
1.deoxyribonucleic acid-  DNA is present in all living cells except in some plant viruses.DNA mostly founds in nucleus but also available in chloroplast and mitochondria in small amount. DNA is a polymer of nucleotides. each nucleotide is made from three different compounds.   1.pentose sugar-deoxyribose
                                              2.phosphoric acid
                                              3.nitrogenous base
nitrogenous base are two types-1.purine base-(a)Adenine (A)
                                                                          (b)guanine (G)
                                          2.Pyrimidine bases-(a)Thymine (T)
                                                                          (b)Cytosine (C)
in each circle many type of nucleotides are arranged in a row.
in every nucleotide has one- one molecules of deoxyribose,nitrogenous base and phosphoric acid.
molecules of nitrogenous base is arrange in inside of deoxyribose and phosphate is outside.
one rows all nucleotides joints from there phosphate molecule.

nucleotides of both circles are also attached by hydrogen bond between nitrogenous base. amount of purine and pyrimidine base are equal in both nucleotide chain.one chains Adenine joints from other chains thymine and cytosine joint from guanine.                                                                                                          there  is a double bond between adenine and thymine and triple bond between guanine and cytosine.

Molecular structure of DNA-
Watson and crick gives DNA modal and they  crowned with Nobel prise for that modal in 1962. according them in DNA's bi-coiled structure two characters are shows- 
1.DNA molecule is made of two helices which coil around there axis.
2.both chins coil in opposite directions.
Watson and crick modal of DNA_

Importance of DNA-
1. genes are made of DNA. DNA transfer genetic characters from one generation to next generation.
2. this control all activities in cell.
3.DNA syntheses RNA which is important for protein synthesis.
4.DNA is stable. it has less chances of mutation and genetic changes. 
read about cell biology on this link-
CELL BIOLOGY
2.ribo-nucleic acid-
Distribution- RNA is mostly present in cytoplasm and nucleolus. and   except this RNA is also found in mitochondria and chloroplast also. RNA is genetic material in some plant virus and bacteriophage.
Structure-RNA is polynucleotide chain of four monomeric ribo-nucleotides. each ribo- nucleotide contain one pentose sugar, one nitrogen base molecule, one phosphate molecule.
(a)Nitrogen base- these are two type carbonic compounds -purine and pyrimidine. purines are adenine and guanine. pyrimidine are cytosine and uracil.
(b)Sugar-RNA has ribose sugar which is a pentose sugar.
(c)Phosphate- this is in phase of phosphoric acid.its phosphate connected with ribose sugar. There is a ester bond between them.
 RNA made in nucleus and then come in cytoplasm. this transfer information from nucleus to ribosome. ribosome doing protein synthesis.

there is a three types of RNA-
1.Ribosomal RNA-this type of RNA is presents in ribosome.
2.Messenger RNA-this made in nucleus and gives information for protein synthesis. for every protein there is a special messenger RNA.
3.Transfer RNA-this is small then messenger RNA. this collects amino acids from cytoplasm for protein synthesis.
QUESTION ANSWER FOR MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

Composition, structure and function of biomolecule-protein

                              protein

protein is big molecule of high Wight and complex chemical structure. this is impotent part of body so berzelius call this protein. this is solid compound presents in protoplasm. in nucleus this founds in nuclioprotein phase and play important role in cell division.protein control all chemical reactions in our body so these type of protein call enzymes.

 composition-this is made of hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen some time sulfer and fosforus are also part of its structure.

structure- protein is polymer of amino acid. in its structure many molecules of amino acid combines by peptide bond. one amino acid molecules carboxylic group attach with amino group of other amino acid molecule. 

amino acid-amino acid are small molecules of protein. that are important for our body growth. in its structure one carboxylic group and one amino group in attach with a- carbon. a- carbons other two free valencies are fulfil by hydrogen atom and side chain. so amino acid has both characters of acid and base.

functions of amino acids-
1.amino acid is unit of protein.
2.some amino acids like tyrosine, thyroxine converts in melamine.
3.tryptofen take part in synthesis of vitamin nicotinemyde and indol-3- acetic acid.
4. most of amino acids made glucose.
5.by removing carboxylic group in phase of CO<sub>2 from amino acid molecule it converts in histamine.

peptide linkage- in protein amino acids attach by there amino and carboxylic group. these type of bonding call peptide bond.

levels of protein structure-
1.primary structure- in protein  chain of amino acid is primary structure. this is important but doesn't active.
2.secondary structure-</sub>  for active stage protein make three-dimensional structure. a active protein has polypeptide chain in this polypeptide chain hydrogen bond built between hydrogen of amino group and oxygen of carboxylic group. this structure is secondary structure.
3.tertiary structure-a-helix or pleated sheet make more circles and this call tertiary structure. by this tree dimensional structure side chains of amino acid's come near and protein make enzyme. 
QUESTION ANSWER FOR MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
classification of protein-
 in structure there is a two type of protein
1.simple protein-these type of protein has only amino acid. the molecules are small and round. example-protaimne,histone.

2.conjugated protein-these are many types 
(a)chromoprotein- in this type simple protein connect with a pigment. example- heamoglobin,cytochromes.
(b)glycoproteins-in there structure carbohtdrate is present with protein.example-mucin and hiparin.
(c)nucleoprotein-molecules of simple protein are attached with nucleic acid.example-chromatin are made of nucleoprotein.
(d)lipoprotein-simple protein + lipid calls lipoprotein and this type of protein founds in brain,plasma and milk.
(e)phosphoprotein-when simple protein's molecules are attached with phosphoric acid, ortho or pyrophoshphate this type of protein calls phosphoprotein. for example ovovitelline of egg and casein of milk is phosphoprotein.

functions of proteins-
1. As enzymes- proteins are work like enzymes which controls biological reactions.
2.As hormones-some proteins works like hormone for example somatotrophic hormone.
3. proteins and protection-these are antibodies or immunoglobulins. these proteins stop the effects of outer molecules.example- thrombin and fibrinogen.
4.transport-transport protein are helpful for molecules transport in blood.hacmoglobin provides oxygen to tissues from lungs.
5.proteins and biochemical individuality-protein provides individuality to animals and spices. blood of a special animal or spices don't shifts in other animal body.
6.Toxins-some proteins are poisonous like gossypin of cotton seed.
7.structural protein- protein take part in cell membrane formation. these founds in bone.
8.cell secretions- mucus is glycoprotein which is secretion of cell.
9.special secretion-fibrion protein are special secretion of spider.
10.Storage protein-protein is storable like food. for example albumin of egg.
to know about other biomolecule nucleic acid click here-
BIOMOLECULE_NUCLEIC ACID

Composition, structure and function of biomolecule- carbohydrate

Introduction= in a cell inorganic materials like minerals, water and organic compounds like carbohydrate,lipid, protein or nucleic acid are present. here we are reading about organic compounds which are important for human body and effects on us. so now we read about there composition, structure and also there function in easy and learning way.
                        carbohydrate 
carbohydrate is a important part of our food. this is presents in carbon,hydrogen and oxygen's 1:2:1 ratio so that this call carbohydrate. during to water snap carbohydrate breaks in glucose and water molecules.in living cells glucose is present in glycogen phase.   
there is a three type of carbohydrate-
(a) monosaccharides= simple carbohydrate is monosaccharides. there formula is C_nH_2nO_{n. in there structure carbon atoms are 3-7.
on base of atoms number this divides in five types.
1.triosis
2.tetrosil
3.pentosis
4.hexosis
5.heptosis
 structure of hectose and pentose are open and ring like. glucose and fructose are example of hexose sugar.} 

(A) glucose=  it is also call grape sugar or dextrose which found in fruits and honey. in the body present in blood and intestine. it is highly founds in urine of diabetic patients.all carbohydrates distribute to cells in phase of glucose.
_{(B)fructose=the other name of fructose is laevulose. the structure of its is same like glucose but some chemical characters are different. it converts in glucose in liver.}

_{(C)galactose= its found in milk sugar or lactose with glucose. during the} digestion its each molecule divides in glucose and galactose's  molecules.

all those are white, crystallise and sweet sugars.
ribose and deoxyribose are pentose sugar which found in nucleic acid.
  monosaccharides has two special chemical characters-
-sugar of aldehyde and kiton's class convert Cu⁺⁺  in  Cu^+. 
-  monosaccharides  aldehyde and kiton react with other carbonic compounds alcohol and combines by glycosidic bond.
oligasaccharides=when two monosaccharides are combines by glycosidic bond it call oligosaccharide. biologically maltose, sucrose and lactose are important disaccharides.
(A)sucrose- sucrose, which also cane sugar call, highly found in fruits, sugar cane and sweet potato. this is a sweet sugar. this divides in fructose and glucose by water snap.

(B)lactose=the other name of lactose is milk sugar. this is a only carbohydrate founds in child who only drink milk. in its structure there is a one atom of glucose and other of galactose. 

(C)maltose= malt sugar don't founds free this made from ptyalin enzymes  reaction on glycogen. 

functions of small molecules of carbohydrate=
1.in photo synthesis trayose, pentose and heptose are middle compound.
2.in respiration glucose makes energy.
3.in many animals glucose is presents in phase of blood sugar.
4. in mammary glands glucose and galactose make milk sugar lactose.
5. ribose and de oxyribose are part of nucleic acid and nucleotide.
6.glucose is useful in lipid synthesis. 
QUESTIONS ABOUT BIOMOLECULES
3.polysaccharides=these are polymers of monosaccharide example- starch, cellulose, agar.]

types of polysaccharides-

(a) food storage polysaccharides- starch is example of this which presents in wheat,banana, potato and tapioca. glycogen is store in liver and muscles of mammalian.
  
advantage of polysaccharides carbohydrate-
1.in there production many water molecules release from monosaccarides so very much sugar store.
2.the storage of polysaccharides is easy comparing yo monosaccharide.

(b) structural polysaccharides-

1.cellulose- this is a fibre like flexible matter which mostly presence in plant body. cellulose is 50% founds in wood and in cotton this is 90%. in cellulose molecule structure 6000 glucose molecules connects in a row. in human body enzymes to digest cellulose are absent. these enzymes are presents in cow, goat and other animals.
use of cellulose-
1. this useful in fuel.
2.cotton and linen is used to make rope and clothes.
3. rayon is make by cellulose.
4.by water snap cellulose converts in sugar.
5.cellulose nitrate is used in explosive

2.chitin- this is a also a type of polysaccharides found in outer skeleton of crabs this is made of N-acetyl glucose amine. chitin is smooth and membrane like structure. this is a safety layer of body.

3.mucoploysaccharides- the liquid flow from plant body called mucilage. the best example of its is psyllium. this is made of galactose and mejose.  this is economically important. in our body it present in hyaline fluid and sinovial fluid. 
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 BIOMOLECULES

                         

Bonding in Molecules

Molecule is a group of two or more atoms which are combined from chemical bond.
to know about atom structure click on this link-
structure of atom

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Chemical bond=atoms are present in molecule of a compound attached from a force, that force called chemical bond. There are three types of bond

1. Electro-valent bond or ionic bond

2. Covalent bond

3. Coordinate bond

Ionic bond=ionic bond is made from electron transfer between atoms. When a electron transfer from one atom to other atom a atom which donate electron has positive charge and the atom which accepts the electron has negative charge. These opposite charged atoms connect by electrostatic force this force called electro-valent bond. And the number of exchanged electron called these atoms electro valence.

Characteristics of electro-valent compounds=

1. These compounds are hard and brittle.

2. These are non volatile on normal temperature and pressure.

3. To remove ion of the compound we need high energy so melting point is high.

4. In solid state the compound is non conductor but in fused state this is conductor.

5. These compounds do not show isomerism.
Covalent bond== this bond is made from partnership of same electrons between atoms. The compound has this type of bond called covalent compounds.

When two atoms share 1.2 or 3 electrons then the bond calls single bond. Double bond or triple bond.  Firstly Lewis describes them in 1919.

Characteristics of covalent compounds=

1.At normal temperature covalent compounds available in gas or liquid state because there molecules combined from Vander Waals force.

2.There are three type of covalent compounds

(a)Soft and evaporative solid there crystal’s unit is molecule and they combined by Vander Waals force.example-I_2, S₈  

(b) The solid which has crystal’s separate layers. Example-graffiti.

(c)The solids in all atoms combined from covalent bond and make a giant molecule. Example -SiC.

3.There boiling and melting point are low.

4.These compounds are non conductor.

5.Covalent bonds are rigid and directional.

6.The molecules of these compounds participate in chemical reaction. The speed of reaction is slow then ionic reaction. 

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 Coordinate bond=according to TM Lowry and NV sidwick, coordinate bond is a special type of covalent bond. in this bond two atoms attached by one electron pair, but the electron of pair given by only one atom. a atom which outer orbital is full gives electron pair to other incomplete atom. the atom who give electron call donor and other atom who take call acceptor. this bond is showed by arrow.

example=

Characteristics of coordinate bond=

1.this compounds are found in all states.

2.these are non conductor.

3.there dielectric is high.

4.this compounds gives molecular reactions.

Read about my other article about biomolecule carbohydrate on this link-

CARBOHYDRATE

singlet linkage= This type of bond is defined by sudden. according this a tom which outer orbital is full donate his single electron from loan pair electron to two atoms it show by half  headed arrow.

overlapping between atomic orbitals=

axial overlapping=in this type atoms overlaps from axis and make sigma bond. example-s-s overlapping.

sidewise overlapping=by this type pay bond makes this  only makes in sigma bonds presence  its a weak bond.example-Py-Py overlapping.

hybridisation- when two atomic orbitals  which energy level are almost equal combines and make new orbitals of same energy then these new orbitals calls hybridised orbital and this is hybridisation.

characteristics of hybridisation=

1.in this atoms  different orbitals of external classes take part.

 2.only orbitals which has almost equal energy take part in this.  3.number of new orbital is same of orbital which combines

 4.only atomic orbital take part in that, not electron.

 5. the bond makes hybridisation is strong.

Now this is time to question answers, See some impotent competitive exams questions on this topic at this link:-

Questions related to bonding in molecules

To know my other article about vitamin click here-

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION IF VITAMIN